ambition
care
worry
attentiveness
functionality

unpredictable
various
brief
excessive
successive

Necessarily
Adequately
Accurately
Tentatively
Desperately

have indicated / resided
had indicated / has resided
indicated / would reside
could have indicated / had been residing
indicate / had resided

refused / have been
refuse / are
have refused / had been
had refused / will be
were refusing / are to be

hadn’t smiled / would have done
didn’t smile / will do
doesn’t smile / may have done
couldn’t have smiled / does
can’t smile / is doing

at / over
in / on
before / through
off / during
within / with

over / after
for / with
at / on
about / through
from / above

whether
who
when
that
as

so that
just as
while
unless
in case

lest
although
after
as if
if

more than
just as
the same as
so far as
as well as

so / as
as / as
more / than
both / and
not only / but also

gather
migrate
occupy
issue
increase

spread out
brought together
held out
made up
taken down

declares
declared
has declared
would have declared
would declare

under
in
with
through
over

stage
objection
assumption
controversy
aim

whatever
where
who
which
whereas

completely
almost
largely
adversely
slightly

is capturing
captures
has captured
had captured
will capture

soaring health costs are one of the big factors
that have crippled the economy
usually employers cut wages or pass on the
costs as higher prices to customers
firms should, in fact, be indifferent to whether
they pay employees cash wages or benefits
those costs have nearly doubled this decade
alone in many industrialized countries
the current economic difficulties have forced
politicians to focus on health reform

A group of students are experimenting
Scientists had wondered
A great deal of evidence needs to be gathered
It’s long been known
Over the years, no scientist has questioned

A team of scientists has claimed that the
traditional methods of production in plastics are
extremely costly and have an adverse impact on
the environment
It has been announced that a company in China,
sponsored by the government, is planning to
harvest plastics from crops of corn
Eight tonnes of crude oil are currently needed to
create one tonne of polyol, which is an alcoholic
substance used in a number of plastics
Scientists are now using a new type of
microscope that lets them view internal
structures of materials in greater detail than ever
before
The device the company’s scientists use utilizes
X-ray analysis technology and reveals chemical
compositions of objects being studied

During World War II, France was split into a
German-occupied north and an unoccupied
south
Following World War II, France turned its
attention to its African colonies, where there was
a growing demand from the natives for
independence
After a series of extremely savage battles, Allied
armies liberated France in August 1944 from the
German occupation
In May 1940, the Germans marched into an
undefended Paris, and in the following month the
French government signed an armistice
Beginning in 1919, French foreign policy aimed
at keeping Germany weak through a system of
alliances

it has partly attained its goal, since it now hosts
19 national and international banks
Following World War II, France turned it has built a textile industry that has made the
country relatively prosperous
last month it brought in a new labour law, making
it easier to hire and fire
it imports most of its food and energy as rising
world prices are pushing up inflation
much of the economy remains concentrated in
the hands of a few local magnates

since he had been regarded as a promising
young poet
whereas prose is essentially a means of
unearthing and exhibiting them
but his poems have been published in
respectable literary journals
because many critics share the view that poets
should be concerned with politics
if many prose writers enjoy writing about social
and cultural issues

since the first crewed mission will be planned for
the far side of the Moon
whereby test landings are scheduled to begin in
2010
which is vital to any future lunar base to be set
up by NASA
even if the mission aims to land astronauts on
the surface of the Moon by 2015
even though dense clouds of interstellar dust
conceal the heart of our galaxy

that mass extinctions of mammoths and wild
horses 10,000 years ago were caused by natural
climate shifts
whether humans were to blame for extensive
destruction in the natural world and also for the
pollution of the oceans
how scientists began to understand clearly what
dinosaurs ate and why they disappeared from
the face of the Earth
if an olive branch buried for thousands of years
in volcanic ash could have revealed the fate of
the great Minoan civilization on the Greek island
of Thera
when it was scientifically established that
dinosaurs belonged to a large group of reptiles
called archosauria

Since power generation in China fell by 7% last
year
As India had enjoyed a big economic advantage
over China
Because unrest and even insurgency are
widespread in many countries
If China’s growth rate were to fall to 5% or less
While India is considered to be a major
economic power

while China has been blamed for the climate
crisis today
although scientists have concluded that this
warming is dangerous
since the details of future forecasts about
warming remain unclear
that warming would be a significant problem in
the decades ahead
whether the planet was indeed warming

Çin ve Hindistan’ın hızlı sanayileşmesi nedeniyle
oluşan iklim değişikliği, kesinlikle başka bir ülkenin
suçu veya sorumluluğu değildir.
Çin ve Hindistan gibi ülkelerin hızlı sanayileşmelerine
rağmen, iklim değişikliği, ne herhangi tek
bir ülkenin hatasıdır, ne de herhangi tek bir ülkenin
sorumluluğudur.
Çin ve Hindistan dahil, pek çok ülkenin hızla sanayileşmesi
sonucu ortaya çıkan iklim değişikliği,
herhangi bir ülkenin suçu olmadığı gibi, sorumluluğu
da değildir.
Tek bir ülkenin suçu veya sorumluluğu olmayan
iklim değişikliği, Çin ve Hindistan dahil, pek çok
ülkenin hızla sanayileşmesi sonucunda ortaya
çıkmıştır.
Çin ve Hindistan’ın yanı sıra, çeşitli ülkelerin
hızla sanayileşmesi, iklim değişikliğine yol açmış
olup, tek bir ülke suçlu veya sorumlu değildir.

Amerika’nın klasik askerî üstünlüğü, düşmanlarını,
amaçlarını gerçekleştirmek için, kaçınılmaz
olarak ayaklanmaya itmiştir.
Klasik askerî gücü nedeniyle, Amerika’nın düşmanları,
hedeflerine ulaşabilmek için, hiç çekinmeden
ayaklanma yolunu seçmişlerdir.
Amerika’nın klasik askerî gücünü bilen düşmanları,
amaçlarında başarılı olmak için, ister istemez
ayaklanma yoluna gitmişlerdir.
Amerika’nın klasik askerî üstünlüğünün sonucu
olarak, düşmanları, ayaklanma yoluna giderek,
amaçlarına ulaşmayı benimsemişlerdir.
Amerika’nın klasik askerî gücünden çekinen
düşmanları, ancak ayaklanma yoluyla hedeflerine
ulaşabileceklerini fark etmişlerdir.

Orta Asya çoğunlukla okyanusların yumuşatıcı
etkilerinden uzak olduğu için, burada kışlar çok
soğuk ve yazlar oldukça sıcak olur.
Orta Asya, okyanusların yumuşatıcı etkilerinden
uzak olduğu için, pek çok bölgede kışlar oldukça
sert ve yazlar da son derece sıcak geçer.
Orta Asya’nın pek çok bölgesinde kışların çok
sert ve yazların çok sıcak geçmesi, okyanusların
yumuşatıcı etkilerinin burada bulunmamasındandır.
Okyanusların yumuşatıcı etkilerinden yoksun
olan Orta Asya’nın büyük bölümü, çok sert soğuk
kışlar ve son derece sıcak yazlar yaşar.
Orta Asya, okyanusların yumuşatıcı etkilerinden
tamamiyle yoksundur ve dolayısıyla bu bölgede
kışlar olabildiğince soğuk, yazlar ise dayanılmaz
derecede sıcak geçer.

Hâlâ dünyanın pek çok yerinde dalış yapılabilir
ve insan etkisinin çok az belirtisi görülebilir.
Dünyada hâlâ öyle yerler vardır ki dalış yapmak
için buralara gidilebilir ve buralarda insan etkisinin
çok az belirtisi görülebilir.
Dalış yapmak için gidilebilecek ve insan etkisinin
çok az görülebileceği yerleri dünyada hâlâ bulmak
mümkündür.
Dünyada, insan etkisinin çok az olduğu ve dalış
yapmak için gidilebilecek hâlâ pek çok yer bulunmaktadır.
Dünyada, dalış yapmak için gidilebilecek ve insan
etkisinin çok az belirtisi görülebilecek yerler
hâlâ mevcuttur.

Son on yıl içinde imzalanmış olan 60 kadar madencilik
sözleşmesi, Demokratik Kongo Cumhuriyeti
hükûmetinin geçen hafta oluşturmuş olduğu
özel bir komisyonca incelenecektir.
Demokratik Kongo Cumhuriyeti hükûmetince geçen
hafta kurulan özel komisyon, öncelikle son
on yıl içinde imzalanmış olan 60 kadar madencilik
sözleşmesini inceleyecektir.
Demokratik Kongo Cumhuriyeti hükûmeti, son on
yılda imzalanmış olan en az 60 madencilik sözleşmesini
gözden geçirmek için, geçen hafta özel
bir komisyon kurmuştur.
Son on yılda imzalanmış olan yaklaşık 60 madencilik
sözleşmesinin gözden geçirilmesi amacıyla,
Demokratik Kongo Cumhuriyeti hükûmeti,
özel bir komisyonu geçen hafta oluşturmuştur.
Geçen hafta Demokratik Kongo Cumhuriyeti hükûmetince
kurulan özel komisyonun amacı, son
on yılda imzalanmış bulunan 60 kadar madencilik
sözleşmesini değerlendirmektir.

Since the Economic and Monetary Union
consists of all the EU states, the inclusion in the
euro area of every EU country is not out of place.
Although all EU states are part of the Economic
and Monetary Union, not all EU countries are
part of the euro area.
Even if EU states all make up the Economic and
Monetary Union, the euro area does not include
every EU country.
Even though every EU country is not included in
the euro area, the Economic and Monetary
Union is made up of all the EU states.
It is unlikely that every EU country, which is part
of the Economic and Monetary Union, will also
be part of the EU area.

For years, most scientists have underestimated
just how delicate the balance of the ecological
systems on our planet really is.
The question as to whether the ecological
systems on our planet have a delicate balance
has in fact been overlooked for years by many
scientists.
The ecological systems on our planet are so
delicate that, for years, most scientists have not
really taken them into account.
Our planet’s ecological systems, which are really
extremely delicate, have been neglected for
years by various scientists.
Many scientists have failed for years to
understand that our planet’s ecological systems
are indeed very delicate.

The fact that trade is an engine of growth has
been dismissed by development economists,
since the current global crisis has caused the
collapse of international trade.
The current global crisis has undermined
international trade, and this has led development
economists to scepticism about trade as a
means of growth.
In view of the current global crisis and its
adverse impact on international trade, many
development economists have come to
disregard trade as an engine of growth.
Due to the current global crisis and the decline of
international trade, development economists
doubt whether trade can be regarded as an
effective means of growth.
The collapse of international trade due to the
current global crisis has made development
economists sceptical about regarding trade as
an engine of growth.

For a foreign writer, in order to have an opinion
of China, he should first know his own country
where he has grown up.
A foreign writer’s attitude towards the Chinese is
essentially inspired by the country in which he
has grown up.
How a foreign writer understands China depends
a great deal on the country he originally comes
from.
Every foreign writer’s perspective on China is
shaped by the country, in which he grew up.
Before a foreign writer can understand China, he
ought to focus in the first place on his own
country in which he was born.

Although Iran is the second largest oil exporting
country in OPEC, it still continues to enrich
uranium for the production of nuclear fuel and,
thus, solve the rising energy crisis faced by its
people.
Iran, which is OPEC’s second largest oil
exporter, is resolved to enrich uranium and, thus,
make nuclear fuel so that the desperate energy
needs of its people can be met.
As OPEC’s second largest oil exporter, Iran
claims that it wants to enrich uranium only to
make nuclear fuel to meet the growing energy
needs of its people.
By enriching uranium, Iran, the second largest oil
exporting OPEC member, intends to produce
nuclear fuel in order to meet its people’s
increasing energy needs.
Still OPEC’s second largest oil exporter, Iran
claims that it wishes to produce nuclear fuel by
enriching uranium for the growing energy needs
of its people.

In Africa, foreign aid goes mostly to those
governments that have mismanaged their
economies.
There are over three million Nigerians in the US
and another one million in Britain.
From a quarter to almost 50% of universityeducated
graduates from Ghana, Uganda, and
Kenya leave their countries to work in the West.
Ironically, African citizens abroad subsidize state
corruption.
About three million middle-class Zimbabweans
have migrated to South Africa since 1999.

Afghans’ greatest concerns are access to
electricity, jobs, water, and education.
Indeed, more US troops are absolutely
necessary to defeat the insurgents in
Afghanistan.
It is a clear fact that Pakistan is connected to the
Afghan insurgency.
The Pakistani army remains primarily focused on
the perceived threat from India.
However, US efforts so far to reach a decision
for a complete withdrawal have been mixed.

In other parts of the world, some 40 reactors are
already under construction, though many have
been underway for decades with no end in sight.
Annual emissions of greenhouse gases are
expected to double by 2050, from a current 7
billion tonnes of carbon dioxide each year to
more than 14 billion tonnes.
According to a recent report, nuclear power is a
major solution to the West’s growing electricity
needs, and increased nuclear use can
substantially lower greenhouse gas emissions.
On the contrary, a country’s use of nuclear
power has much to do with government
intervention, whether through state loans or
streamlined regulations.
Therefore, global electricity demand is estimated
to nearly double by 2030, with nuclear power
currently accounting for about 15 per cent of
global use.

Some hospitals have had to hire security
personnel to protect medical staff from angry
mobs.
By comparison, Japanese pay just 15 per cent of
their medical spending out of pocket.
So the government has recently developed a
strategy to provide affordable medical insurance
to 90 per cent of its population by 2010.
In fact, the free market reforms in China were
first initiated in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
The Chinese government has already met many
of its economic goals and is now beginning to
address scientific and technological
development.

The vision of the African Union is to achieve an
integrated, prosperous, well-governed, and
peaceful United States of Africa.
These are some of the most serious issues that
the African Union is determined to address as
efficiently as possible.
Africa seeks to promote existing and agreedupon
shared values across the continent at
individual, national, regional, and international
levels.
All the African countries wish to eliminate
ongoing conflicts and prevent the occurrence of
new ones in order to achieve development and
integration.
Some of the values cherished and upheld by
each African nation are good governance,
democracy, respect for human rights,
accountability, and transparency.

There are huge tracts of unspoiled countryside,
some of which have been set aside as national
parks.
Unfortunately, Turkish wetlands are under threat
from dams, drainage, pollution, and climatic
change.
The country’s position on the migratory flyways
makes it a paradise for birdwatchers.
The country is also floristically rich, with more
than 11,000 plant species recorded.
In winter, the country’s lakes and wetlands hold
thousands of wintering wildfowl.

I suggest you get rid of all these provocative
ideas, since many people at the conference will
oppose you vehemently and try to silence you.
Your views may be provocative and, therefore,
displease others, but I know they are sound. So
don’t be discouraged.
It is incomprehensible to me why you should
always attempt to provoke other people and, in a
way, subvert the conference.
Everybody knows that you are a radical and
always cause trouble at international academic
gatherings. So I advise you to be careful.
This conference you are going to attend is not
the right occasion for you to express your
provocative views. I would advise you not to get
involved in a row.

I am fully convinced that, like me, other critics
will be much impressed by the novel as it deals
with serious issues.
In my opinion, it will take a long time before the
novel really draws the attention of the reading
public.
With regard to the novel, I should stress in the
first place that the author’s portrayal of the
characters is very disappointing indeed.
Although the author of the novel has a great deal
of capacity for creativity, he is so much under the
influence of other novelists that he lacks
originality.
As far as I am concerned, it is not a very
successful novel, as it lacks clarity and has
certain plot problems.

I am wondering whether all the committee
members will be available to attend a meeting
later today.
This is your chairman calling. We are going to
have a meeting, which I want you to attend
without any excuse.
As a committee, we have to come together
immediately. I am sorry about this, as it is
contrary to our usual practice.
Our committee needs to meet as soon as
possible. I am sure you have no objection
whatsoever.
I am asking you and the other members to come
to my office right away for a meeting. No one
must be absent.

I am afraid my talk on the current crisis in the
world economy may in the end turn into a
controversy over domestic politics, which is not
what I want. So you will have to excuse me from
giving the talk.
Before I can accept your invitation for a talk on
the world economy, you must assure me that
there will be no questions concerning domestic
politics.
I know out of experience that such issues as the
current economic crisis in the world are
extremely controversial, and I am absolutely sure
that questions will be asked about domestic
policies.
There is no doubt that the world economic crisis
has its adverse impact on domestic policies,
which I wouldn’t like to touch on in my talk.
I have decided mainly to focus in my talk on the
global effects of the current economic crisis, but I
am also prepared to answer questions
concerning domestic political issues.

Should you need other books for reference, you
just let me know, and you needn’t worry about
returning the book soon, which I have already
lent you.
I hope the book I gave you has been most useful
for your research; you can give it back to me
when you don’t need it any longer.
Since you haven’t kept your word about the book
you borrowed from me, I am really angry; it is an
indispensable source for my research, and I
need it now.
Since my library has a number of reference
books, you can borrow them whenever you need
them, and you needn’t hurry to return the one
I’ve lent you.
You said you would return the reference book I
lent you. It is alright; I am using other sources for
my research.

So, to wrap up, the Industrial Revolution at the
end of the 18th century and thereafter altered not
only the foundations of the economy but also the
very assumptions with which people approached
economics.
Moreover, one can suggest that Britain in the
18th and 19th centuries had ample supplies of
coal and a well-developed network of canals, all
of which proved important for industrialization.
In fact, by the end of the 18th century and the
early 19th century, London had become the
leading centre for international trade and a
headquarters for the transfer of raw materials,
capital, and manufactured products throughout
the world.
Actually, the Industrial Revolution began with
dramatic technological leaps in a few industries
towards the end of the 18th century and the early
19th century, the first of which was cotton textiles.
Undoubtedly, at the end of the 18th century and
during the early decades of the 19th century,
expanding networks of trade and finance in
Britain created new markets for goods and new
sources of raw materials.

I
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When World War II ended, Algerian nationalists,
claiming that Algeria had made a useful
contribution during the war, appealed to the
Allies to acknowledge as right the independence
of their country.
As soon as World War II ended, the Allies were
approached by Algerian nationalists to grant
independence to Algeria, since they had
benefited from the resources of the country.
Algerian nationalists had served the Allies so
well during World War II that, as soon as the war
ended, they expected them to grant full
independence.
Following World War II, in which Algeria had
played a useful part, the Allies were required by
Algerian nationalists to grant independence to
their country.
Since Algeria had offered the Allies various
services during World War II, Algerian
nationalists were keen to secure with Allied
support the independence of their country.

Europe in the Middle Ages accumulated much
wealth, and this was due to new developments in
European social life.
In the late Middle Ages, Europe became
increasingly rich, and this led to a structural
change in society.
The social changes witnessed in Europe towards
the end of the Middle Ages were wholly related
to contemporary economic prosperity.
European society in the late Middle Ages
underwent a process of change due to the rise of
wealthy classes.
It was at the close of the Middle Ages that
Europe experienced a major social and
economic transformation.

The eighteenth century was noted for its interest
in Baroque music, and at the time both Bach and
Handel were the most notable representatives of
this music.
It was in the eighteenth century that Baroque
music became most popular and that Bach and
Handel were recognized as the most famous
composers of the time.
Bach and Handel were so admired in the
eighteenth century that they were regarded as
the greatest composers of Baroque music.
Baroque music reached its final stage of
development in the eighteenth century, which
also produced Bach and Handel, regarded as
the greatest composers ever.
The development of Baroque music reached its
climax in the eighteenth century when, as the
greatest Baroque composers, Bach and Handel
created the best of their music.

When the World Trade Center was attacked in
2001, the meaning of the term “globalization”
changed completely.
Because of the attack in 2001 on the World
Trade Center, the term “globalization” has
acquired a meaning which is both horrific and
unusual.
The usual meaning of the term “globalization”
was further broadened by the terrifying attack in
2001 on the World Trade Center.
The term “globalization” has lost its usual
meaning in the aftermath of the attack in 2001 on
the World Trade Center.
Following the attack in 2001 on the World Trade
Center, further meanings have been given to the
term “globalization.”

The city of Port Elizabeth is situated in a
province in South Africa that is one of the
poorest, suffering from an unemployment rate of
40 per cent.
The province in which lies the city of Port
Elizabeth is completely underdeveloped due to a
40 per cent rate of unemployment.
The city of Port Elizabeth is so poor that the
province in which it is situated has an
unemployment rate of 40 per cent.
One of the least prosperous provinces in South
Africa is that of Port Elizabeth, where
unemployment has risen to 40 per cent.
South Africa has several least developed
provinces, in one of which lies the city of Port
Elizabeth, with a rate of 40 per cent
unemployment.

Unlike Britain, Ireland has much prosperity since
it has done its best over the past decade to
achieve an economic growth of 50 per cent.
Ireland’s prosperity, which is much higher than
that of Britain, has led to a 50 per cent rate of
economic growth over the past decade.
Both Britain and Ireland enjoy a high level of
prosperity, which has resulted from a 50 per cent
rate of economic growth over the last ten years.
Ireland’s economic growth over the past decade
has been just 50 per cent, and this has led the
country to a level of prosperity which is
comparable to that of Britain.
During the past ten years, Ireland achieved
almost 50 per cent economic growth, which has
enabled it to become more prosperous than
Britain.

Is it true that some American building companies
use inorganic refuse such as metals in roadbeds
and heavy construction?
Do you mean engineers have developed an
efficient way of dealing with trash?
What do you mean exactly? You seem to be
implying something.
America produces more trash than any other
country in the world, doesn’t it?
Don’t you think such a huge volume of trash can
be processed to produce electricity?

Moreover, travel enriches one’s life. Don’t you
agree?
Actually, it fuels economic growth, doesn’t it?
Do you believe that travelling broadens our
experience of the world?
Furthermore, tourism enables people to explore
other cultures and geographies. Right?
Yes, true. Yet, worldwide mobility because of
tourism has its drawbacks. Do you agree?

Have other firms been investing in long-term
solutions like hydrogen fuel?
Can you tell me how we can produce fuels from
lots of different sources in order to meet the
growing demand?
Don’t you think the solution is a combination of
cleaner fuels and cleaner engines?
How can we produce lead-free and low-sulphur
fuels?
Is the burning of coal and gas for lighting,
heating, and cooking one of the causes of local
air pollution?

Right. I didn’t know that its effects were worst in
confined places like hospitals, prisons, and
monasteries.
According to a contemporary account, the city of
Florence lost 96,000 people between March and
October of 1348.
European men and women were convinced that
the plague had been sent as a divine
punishment.
However, as one learns from the article, the
plague did not last long, but actually began to
dissipate by 1351.
I feel that more study must be made of the social
and political impact the plague had on medieval
Europe in general.

Before King, various civil rights groups in
America had started to organize boycotts and
demonstrations to condemn racial discrimination
against blacks in all walks of life.
Unfortunately, his inspiring career as a defender
of civil rights in America was tragically ended by
assassination in 1968.
In fact, civil rights laws passed under President
Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1960s did bring
American blacks some measure of equality with
regard to voting rights.
Yes, of course. Yet, he’s been accused of
seeking complete independence from white
society.
As you know, the civil rights movements of the
1960s in America clearly showed the chasm
between the egalitarian promises of American
democracy and the real inequalities at the core
of American social and political life.

In other words, are you suggesting that
advances in electronic technologies have
provided new worldwide platforms and
connections for commercial interests?
Do you mean the wide-ranging effects of
information technologies on political struggles
around the globe?
Are you saying that electronic systems and
devices designed to create, store and share
information have become more powerful and
accessible?
Are you claiming that embattled ethnic minorities
have found worldwide audiences through on-line
campaign sites?
What does that exactly mean? Can you be more
specific?

totally eliminated the economic stagnation
experienced by Western industrial nations
primarily depended on policies formulated by the
International Monetary Fund
was mainly based on policies that allowed state
intervention
was so good that leading industrial states
remained indifferent to neoliberalism
had a positive impact on the development of
international banking

underwent a process of radical change after
1970, with markets quickly intergrating
has never recovered from the adverse effects of
inflation since World War II
is now fully managed only by the International
Monetary Fund and the World Bank
was affected by globalization for only a relatively
short period after 1970
is constantly manipulated by the United States
and other leading Western countries

greatly undermined the process of globalization
in the following decades and has since led the
world economy into a serious crisis
has been the primary cause of the chronic
inflation and economic stagnation faced by the
rest of the world
was essentially inspired by new economic
models based on free-market policies and
neoliberal practices
was extremely important, since it overturned
international currency and banking regulations
was the natural outcome of the wide range of
economic arrangements made in the postwar
period in the West

have always been regarded with suspicion by
industrialized Western nations
develop policies that give priority to state
intervention in the management of the economy
have always introduced new formal regulations
for currencies and international banking
recruit only those economists who strongly
support interventionist economic policies
are financial bodies that are free from any
intervention by an outside authority

signifies the economic policies that have been
practised by the West since World War II
is a term that refers to widely different models of
the market economy
has always been disregarded by World Bank
economists and administrators
is primarily concerned with the free movement of
people and goods in the world
has been more dominant in the United States
than in any of the other industrial nations

has always been aware of the need to grant to
the people their democratic rights
was adversely affected by the war with Iraq and
lost much of its power
has introduced radical economic policies to
increase its oil revenues
has failed to gain the unanimous support of the
people in the country
wholly relies on young radicals in the country,
who are inspired by nationalism

led to a war, which, in the end, settled the issue
of the southern oil fields
was sheer aggression, motivated by an
economic purpose
significantly weakened the authority of the
Iranian mullahs
was strongly opposed by the Soviet government
of the time
provoked Iranian students and workers into antiregime
demonstrations

lasted under a decade and caused a great deal
of bloodshed
was actually a war of attrition, with no victory for
either side
greatly undermined the prosperity of the Iranian
people
made it necessary for the Iranian regime to use
all its oil revenues for weapons
was fought on both sides with weapons provided
by the Soviets

financed a series of projects to strengthen
nationalism among young radicals
made huge investments to upgrade the capacity
of its southern oil fields
re-armed its army and, thus, was able to resist
the Iraqi invasion
carried out economic reforms to improve the
living standards of its people
sponsored radical political movements in other
countries

the Iran-Iraq war resulted from the Iranian
regime’s failure to cooperate with Iraq
the Iranian government is wasting the country’s
oil revenues on unfeasible projects
the new Iranian regime has not met their
economic and political expectations
the future of the regime in the country
fundamentally depends on young radicals
the power of the mullahs in the country is not so
strong as has generally been assumed

actually had no commercial and maritime
significance, but became the major cause of
rivalry between Portugal and Spain
strategically paved the way for further
explorations along coastal West Africa and
across the Atlantic Ocean
could have been prevented if the natives had
been politically united to resist conversion and
colonization
caused so much excitement across Europe that
especially Italian merchants were keen to use
the islands as their commercial base
had an adverse impact on the Netherlands’
maritime trade with England and other countries
in northern Europe

Spanish and Portuguese sailors had attempted
to explore the west coast of Africa and enslave
the natives
only Italian merchants had had the monopoly to
import wool from England and the Netherlands
some daring attempts had been made to
conquer and colonize the Canaries and the
Azores
there had been two major zones for maritime
trade: the Mediterranean and the North Atlantic
there had been continual efforts especially by the
Portuguese to convert West African natives to
Christianity

Italian merchants were first able to carry their
Mediterranean trade into England and the
Netherlands
the Strait of Gibraltar gained so much strategic
importance that it became a territorial issue
between Spain and Portugal
the Europeans soon realized that there was a
great deal of profit to be made by slave trade
across the Atlantic
both England and the Netherlands emerged as
the only major colonizing powers in the North
Atlantic
the Italians absolutely dominated the trade in the
Mediterranean and strongly opposed other
nations’ attempts to benefit from it

were more densely populated than the Azores,
which played no part in transatlantic trade
had already been Christianized before they were
discovered and colonized
were not so important as the Azores in the
increase of trade along the West African coast
did not interest Christopher Columbus at all in
his voyages across the Atlantic
were subjected to colonization soon after they
were discovered by the Genoese

hoped that his westward voyage across the
Atlantic would ultimately take him to Asia
learned much from Genoese sailors about the
locations of the Canaries and the Azores
had taken part earlier in Portuguese voyages
down the west coast of Africa
paid little attention to the strategic and economic
importance of the Canary Islands
always dreamed of completely controlling all the
maritime commerce with Asia

aristocrats always had the right to determine
grain prices for the market
most aristocrats preferred small farmers to
slaves as labourers on their farms
the production of grain was solely the
responsibility of large numbers of small farmers
it was aristocrats that owned huge amounts of
farming lands
aristocrats were so hostile to small farmers that
they drove them off their lands

attached a great deal of importance to the
military value of slaves
had largely been inspired by the Greeks and
some eastern peoples
were not so sophisticated as the other peoples of
the ancient world

began to follow a different policy only after they
had enslaved the Carthaginians
did not differ much from other ancient peoples

had no notion of slavery and knew nothing about
it
were not interested in farming and, therefore,
imported their grain
were so opposed to aristocrats that they
protected small farmers against them

had one political goal: to conquer all the other
peoples east and west
had always been on friendly terms with all the
peoples of the ancient world

they were seriously resisted by the Greeks, who
had no fear of them
their immediate aim was to conquer and enslave
the Carthaginians
it led to an enormous increase in the number of
slaves

they depended heavily on slaves for their military
campaigns
it greatly pleased the Roman aristocracy, since
they were able to own new estates

were totally of Greek and Carthaginian origin
made up the backbone of the Roman economy
formed what the author calls “small farmers”
were so great in number that aristocrats were
uneasy about them
knew farming so well that they produced grain in
huge amounts

it would serve as a model for the design of new
churches in the future
Emperor Justinian was greatly pleased by its
structure and grandeur
the rim of the dome had to have many windows
to let sunlight in
the weight of the dome had to be reduced by
four great pillars
architecturally its structure was unique and
entirely unprecedented

had been a common feature of Byzantine
architecture before Saint Sophia
was made possible by the use of four great
arches
was never regarded as a crucial issue in the
construction of Saint Sophia
was not adequately taken into consideration
during the design of Saint Sophia
has always been a major problem throughout the
history of architecture

was still in its early stage during the reign of
Emperor Justinian
began to improve and further develop after the
construction of Saint Sophia
was greatly influenced by the architecture that
preceded the sixth century
is best represented and exemplified by the
church of Saint Sophia
always made use of masonry in the construction
of buildings with grandeur

seemed to the architects to be precarious since
the dome, with a diametre of 107 feet, was of an
immense size and weight
was somewhat spoiled by the curved triangular
spaces that could be seen between the arches
gave it not only amazing strength but also
impressive magnificence and gracefulness
enabled the architects to design and construct
the whole structure in the form of a cross
gave the architects themselves the impression
that the dome was suspended in midair, with no
support whatsoever

is a concise description of Saint Sophia’s
architectural features and overall excellence
mainly focuses on the distinctive aspects of
Byzantine architecture in the sixth century
gives a detailed account of Emperor Justinian’s
support for the construction of Saint Sophia
discusses how Byzantine architects came to use
the dome as a major structural element
explains the reasons why Saint Sophia was
designed in the form of a cross